As Karl Jaspers claims, “A sociological parallel can be drawn between Confucius’ failure at the court of Wei and Plato’s failure at Syracuse, between the school of Confucius, which trained future statesmen, and the academy of Plato, which served the same purpose.” [1] All this can be well justified by identifying and comparing the historical facts concerned during the so-called “axial period.” This discussion, however, retains its focus on how Confucius (551-479 B.C.) and Plato (427-347 B.C.) perceive music (yue in Chinese and μουσικη in Greek) as a primary source for art education with reference to their aesthetic awareness and sensibility in this regard.

In relevant literature and historical records, both Confucius and Plato are found to be music lovers and practitioners. Their perception of the multifold function of music leads them to share a similar conviction that this genre of art mingled with poetry and dance can be employed as a means to facilitate character development and fulfill other practical purposes. The function is generally embodied not merely in psychical, aesthetic and moral aspects, but also in pedagogical and political domains.

1.  Psychical Effect of Music

According to The Analects (Lun yü), Confucius is said to have listened to the Shao music (Shao yue) during his visit to the State of Qi. Thereby he gets so touched and absorbed that he forgets the taste of meat for three months ever since. On this very occasion, he exclaims so delightedly, “I never thought I myself could be so lost in the music as such.” [2] From the depiction above it may be assumed that Confucius himself enjoys an adequate taste and percipient for the appreciation of music. His experience of this kind reveals the psychical effect on the state of mind. Such effect is usually subtle and delicate, working directly into the soul. Just like what is asserted in other Confucian literature, “Music cuts into the soul very deeply, and move man very quickly;” [3] “Therefore the sphere in which music acts is the interior (inward movements of the soul) of man...its result is a perfect harmony.” [4] Thus, listening to his favorite Shao music, Confucius goes through an ideal vision and grows exalted in the musical ambiance of a peaceful and melodious kind. As is read in his recollections, the Shao music is part of the heritage of the sage-ruler of Shun. It allegedly has many merits. Its moderately appealing and harmonious air is, for instance, likened to the spring breeze from the South, its fascinating and touching sound thus likened to such natural phenomena as cold and heat, wind and rain that stir up external things, and also to the external things that move human beings. [5] This appears proximate to the experience of those whose aims and thoughts will undergo an expansion when listening to the singing of the Ya (odes) and the Song (hymns). [6] In this  case the psychical influence of music on humans can be rightly termed as empathic effect, by virtue of which the listener feels himself into music and thus forgets his bodily wants.

Incidentally, the psychical effect of music is at least twofold. It affects the mentality of its audience on one hand, and also reflects the psychology of its composer and player on the other hand. All this is due to the fact that “Music is the production of the modulations of the voice, and its source is in the affections of the mind of man as it is influenced by external things. When the mind is moved to sorrow, the sound is sharp and fading away; when it is moved to pleasure, the sound is slow and gentle; when it is moved to joy, the sound is cheerful and uninhibited; when it is moved to anger, the sound is coarse and fierce; when it is moved to reverence, the sound is straightforward and modest; when it is moved to love, the sound is harmonious and soft. These six peculiarities of sound are not natural; they indicate the impressions produced by external things.” [7] The depiction brings out the origin of music which springs from such a formula or procedure as follows: thing + mind + sound = music. In addition, it exhibits the close interactions between inner affection and musical expression. For this reason, music is utilized to express and reflect human feelings and ideas. “The sound of the bell and drum is martial when they are struck with anger; it is sorrowful when they are struck with grief; it is cheerful when they are struck with joy. Hence when the frame of mind changes, the sound alternates accordingly; when the sentiments are sincere, they are brought out by the metal and stone. Is it not the same with man?” [8] Herein “the bell and drum” used to be primate instruments in the performance of ancient music in China. They stand in this context for the musical instruments in general. Being basic materials of such instruments in the past, “the metal and stone” are therefore symbolic of music per se. The interactions between the mind and the music are evident and observable in the depiction. Furthermore, such interactions and even the formula of music-making aforementioned can be illustrated by a seemingly anecdotic experience of Confucius. It says that once Confucius played the Se (qua a multiple-stringed plucked instrument somewhat similar to the zither) with his students Zeng Zi (c.505-c.436 B.C.) and Zi Gong (520-? B.C.) listening nearby. When the performance came to an end, Zeng Zi sighed that the sound of the Se played by their Master reflected a kind of greedy mood and evil action. How come it became so inhuman and profit-seeking? His response was also shared by his classmate Zi Gong, who then entered the room towards the Master and repeated the comment made by Zeng Zi. On hearing that, Confucius got so surprised and happy that he praised Zeng Zi as a qualified listener with a musical ear. Meanwhile, he recalled his experience as follows: “When playing the music, I happened to have seen a mouse come out and a cat stealthily run after it. The mouse dashed about for escape while the cat hurried to get its prey but failed. Witnessing the scene, I just had a fancy to describe it by the musical instrument of the Se under my hands. That could be the reason why Shen (Zeng Zi) assumed I was greedy and evil.” [9]

As is observed in Plato’s dialogues, there is a high consciousness of the psychical effect of music. This effect is also twofold. It is in the first place related to the origin of music and gymnastic as well. That is, music, alike gymnastic, comes into being as it is expressive of human feelings or sentiments that require a release according to the psychical needs of humankind. All this is claimed by Plato to have undergone a process of evolution as follows: initially human beings would rage and roar without rhyme or reason when they have not yet acquired his own proper sense; later on, they have once got on their legs and jumps about without rhyme or reason, which has then led to their needs of the like; and finally, they have become mature and accordingly the sense of harmony and rhythm has sprung from this beginning among them with the divine help of the Gods including Apollo, the Muses and Dionysus who are supposed to be in charge of arts in general. As a result, there arise the movement of the voice and the movement of the body with rhythms and harmonies. The former is conducive to the art of music while the latter the art of dance. [10]

Once coming into existence, music works its psychical impact on its audience by reaching out into the soul on the one hand, and by shaping the character on the other. As a compulsory part of the education program designed for the potential guardians of the city-state, music training is functionally a more potent means than any other, because rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul, on which they mightily fasten, imparting grace, and making the soul of the well-educated graceful, or the soul of the ill-educated ungraceful. Correspondingly, when listening to the suitable music, the well-educated will nourish a real taste and be able to distinguish between the good and the bad. Thus, he will most shrewdly rejoice over and receive into his soul the good, and become noble and good himself; and at the same time, he will justly blame and reject the bad. Conversely, the ill-educated will be deprived of a true taste and remain pleasure-seeking; thus he will be subject to negative effect and go astray in terms of character formation. [11] This being the case, a better efficacy of music seems to be determined by at least two key factors if viewed from a psychological perspective. The first is pointed to the suitability of the music used for a noble purpose, meaning to nurture qualified guardians for the community good. Hence, music must feature engaging melody, harmonious style and affinity to temperance apart from being morally healthy. As for the second factor, it is referred to the age of the educated. The general principle proves to be that the younger they are and the better the result will be. The musical training is somewhat similar to drinking which makes the soul of the drinker become like iron heated in the fire, and grow softer and younger. Then, they can be more easily molded and fashioned by the music of a suitable kind.

2． Aesthetic Value of Music

The psychical aspect of music leads naturally to its aesthetic function. In sooth, Confucius’ experience of being lost in the Shao music can also be understood as an outcome of the empathic effect in an aesthetic sense. It is then the joy, we assume, produced by the music that renders Confucius “forget the taste of meat for three months.” As is mentioned elsewhere in The Analects, Confucius expresses his appreciation of the charm and harmony of the accompanied music of the Guan ju performed by Zhi, the great musician in the State of Lu. He delightfully praises that the performance as such is, from beginning to end, wonderful and appealing to the ears. [12] His response to it is vicarious to its aesthetic values, namely, joy, charm and harmony. Moreover, he compares the Shao music with the Wu music (Wu yue), asserting that the former “is perfectly beautiful and perfectly good,” and the latter “perfectly beautiful but not perfectly good.” [13] Contextually speaking, what is “perfectly beautiful” is referred to the form and what is “perfectly good” to the content in the general terminology of art criticism. Owing to his preference for the Shao music to the Wu music in a relative sense, Confucius expects all-round perfection of music in both form and content. Looking into his stance to living ambitions, one may have a pleasant surprise to find it entrusted to singing. As is noted in The Analects again, Confucius once sits together with a number of his students chatting over their individual aspirations, he accepts those who wish to be ministers and generals, but appreciates most while listening to Zeng Xi, a tremendous lover of music, talk about his own future plan: “What I wish for is nothing but an outing in late spring. My friends and I, dressed in newly-made spring clothes, would go swimming in the Yi River, enjoy sun-bathing in the gentle breeze on the Rain Altar, and then, return home singing.” On hearing all this, Confucius heaves a deep sigh and confesses that he is all for Zeng Dian (pet name for Zeng Xi). [14] This kind of way of life distinctly seeks after an artistization in terms of spiritual freedom above all.

What is noteworthy in the given cases is firstly about how music moves and affects the audience by such virtues as joy, charm, harmony, and beauty. Confucius seems highly aware of those virtues characteristic of music itself. The successors of his way of thought carry on his conception. Xunzi and others, for example, argue through reinforced statements, saying, “Music produces le (joy or cheerfulness) which the nature of man cannot be without. Such joy must arise from the modulations of sounds, and have its embodiment in the movements (of the body); …such is the rule of humanity. These modulations and movements are the changes required by the nature, and they are found complete in music. Thus men will not be without the ministration of joy, and joy will not be without its embodiment; but if that embodiment be not suitably conducted, it is impossible that disorder should not arise.” [15] Likewise, the exhilarations of joy and the glow of affection are the business of music; hence where there is music there is joy. [16] Yet, in a moral sense the joy produced by music must be suitable to the right course pursued in order to evade disorder, and proper to the nature of the superior man in order to bring his will in harmony with the good affections. Secondly, the distinction between the form and content is significant as regards music. This helps reconfirm the necessity of the form and its relative independence of the content, even though Confucius’ conception of beautiful form is widely agreed to be extended from that of good content. For his music “aesthetics”  is largely grounded on his doctrine of ren (reciprocal human-heartedness). As for the beautiful form, it is alleged to consist of such elements as the elegant colors and various parts that make up the ornaments of the notes, in addition to the charming voices of singers and graceful postures of dancers accompanied with rhythmic patterns and harmonic scales. [17] Finally, to Confucius himself, the supreme realm (jingjie) of life is aesthetically based and deeply rooted in the appreciation and value of music. This kind of life is equalized with the highest achievement of political life as is associated with the possibility of cultivating the person, regulating the family, governing the state, and bringing peace to the world.

More or less alike Confucius, Plato himself is highly conscious of the aesthetic value of music and its potent impact on the youth. Music as such brings forth amusement any way due to the pleasures it produces. In effect, Plato is not opposed to all pleasure, which is either defined as “the absence of pain” or “an accompanying charm.” [18] Yet, to his mind pleasure is something more than that. This is proved by a variety of pleasures as he describes, for instance, the pure pleasure of smell and hope, the harmless pleasure that does neither harm nor good in any degree and so on. Music, as one of imitative arts, has its limitations in the respect of representing the pleasures aforementioned. Hence, its excellence ought not to be judged by the criterion of pleasure. Instead, Plato advises to control and moderate any possibly excessive pleasure, pain and sorrow as well. This then leads to the principle of moderation as is applied to both music and poetry. [19] Moreover, Plato distinguishes between the necessary and unnecessary pleasures. [20] The former is a necessity of human nature to desire what is beneficial and should not be suppressed. That is to say, it is indispensable on the part of humankind and helpful in the nourishment of a noble spirit. On the contrary, the latter is dispensable and does no good. Say, any indulgence in such pleasure would be harmful to health or hurtful to the body, not to speak of what would be happening to the soul in this respect.

Elsewhere in the Republic, Plato divides pleasures into three categories based on the threefold classification of the elements in the human mind (namely, reason, desire and spiritedness that cover pugnacity, enterprise, ambition, indignation and so on), [21] and also on that of the three types of people (namely, lovers of wisdom, lovers of honor, and lovers of gain). [22] However, in Plato’s treatment of pleasure, what are taken apart are two categories relating to the sensual pleasure and the intellectual pleasure of certain type. One involves sense and emotion and tends to be vulgar, fleeting and transient, thus moving farther away from reality but closer to the lower region of the soul. In striking contrast, the other calls for reason and features continual learning or pursuit of knowledge, thus moving farther away from vanity and vulgarity but closer to truth and wisdom.

It is at this point that the beauty of music can be rightly and justly conceived of. [23] More celebrated than any other arts of imitation, music requires the greatest care. Its composition must be beautiful anyway, but be true first of all. Its beauty is therefore secondary to its truth in all cases. Likewise, when Plato proclaims that “the end of music” is “the love of beauty,” the term “beauty” in this context can be naturally perceived as the beauty of truth, wisdom, and other virtues in a moral sense. In spite of all these connotations, the beauty of music does have its aesthetic qualities, consisting of the graceful style and harmony, good expression and rhythm. These qualities depend on simplicity as a principle. This simplicity means “the true simplicity of a rightly and nobly ordered mind and character, not that other simplicity which is only a euphemism for folly.” [24] In comparison, simplicity in music is, as Plato deems, the parent of temperance in the soul, and simplicity in gymnastic the parent of health in the body. In contrast, complexity engenders license and disease. [25] It is for this reason that simplicity as a principle is also applied to the selection of musical instruments and components. Thus allowed for use in the city are the lyre and the harp while many-stringed instruments like lyres with three corners are, for example, to be sought out and put aside, and so are the complex scales, complex systems of meter and a variety of feet. For they are liable to undermine the ideal beauty of simplicity in music.

3.  Moral Function of Music

The aesthetic value and the moral effect of music tend to be overlapped to certain extent. It is especially so in ancient times. To Confucius’ mind, for example, music is aimed to help people cultivate the inwardness as it is looked upon as the best means to reform their ways and manners. [26] This obviously denotes the moral effect of music which is especially emphasized in many other Confucian classics. As is detected in The Book of Xunzi and The Record of Music (Yue ji), music is closely linked with morality. It could be used, for instance, to make the hearts of people good. Just because of the deep influence it exerts on its audience, and of the change it produces in manners and customs, the ancient kings appointed music as one of the subjects of instruction, expected its availability wherever possible. In the ancestral temple, for instance, all walks of life listen together to the music, they all will enjoy harmony and reverence; at the folk gatherings, the multitude listen together to it, all will enjoy harmony and deference; at home all family members listen together to it, they all will enjoy harmony and affection. It is by virtue of music one can regulate his heart and mind. It is from music different people draw different benefits. The superior man is supposed to nourish his love of what is good, and the inferior man to hear the correction of his errors. Hence, it is said that “for the courses to be pursued by man the influence of music is great.” And for this reason, it should not be neglected by any one for a moment. Moreover, it requires a sound mastery as it serves to regulate one’s mind and morality accordingly. With the magic power of music, the easy-going, upright, benevolent and considerate heart can be easily developed, and so are joyful experience and peaceful feelings. All this noticeably gives rise to the conclusion that music is bestowed with a variety of functions, of which the ethical service is rather essential, subtle and indispensable. However, the music used under such circumstances must be adequate for its moral purpose or cultivation. Otherwise, it will be considered leading astray.

Confucius is well known to promote the music of Ya and Song while banishing the sound of Zheng because of moral reasons. The former type of music is believed to help purify people of their ills and rectify their minds for virtues, whereas the latter type tends to plunge them into hedonism and make them become licentious, pleasure-seeking or corrupted. In plain words, good music makes people good, bad music makes people bad. Hence music should be evaluated and properly used with due consideration of its moral effects. Specifically speaking, it is from a moral perspective that Confucius advocates the principle of being expressive of joy without being licentious, and expressive of grief without being hurtful. This foreshadows the Doctrine of the Mean (zhong yong zhi dao), and applies to poetry and music alike.

As is pointed out proceedingly, the Confucian aesthetics of music is based on the notion of ren (reciprocal human-heartedness) that serves as the key stone in the structure of lun li dao de (moral codes and ethical rules). Confucius once declares that all the principles and disciplines in his teaching and learning are permeated and underlined by the One as the perpetual Dao, which is defined as the synthesis of zhong and shu. [27] In Chinese expression, zhong literally means loyalty or devotion, and shu altruism or consideration. James Legge renders them into English as “be true to the principles of our nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others.” According to Confucian vindications, these two concepts imply two interrelated approaches: one lies in the advice that “Never do to others what you do not want done to yourself;” [28] and the other in the advice that “Help others establish themselves as you wish to establish yourself, and help others achieve what you wish to achieve.” [29] Actually, zhong and shu can be seen as two sides of one medal, say, two aspects of ren as reciprocal human-heartedness or benevolence. The Confucian definitions of ren vary in different contexts, but the most essential meaning of this notion is the love of people that is intended to harmonize ren lun (human relations). As the highest virtue, it functions as the fountain head of other virtues, such as respectfulness (gong), tolerance (kuan), trustfulness (xin), sensibility (min), generosity (hui), wisdom (zhi), loyalty (zhong), altruism (shu) and piety (xiao), etc.

In short, the ethical function of music radiates from the kernel idea of ren as reciprocal human-heartedness or benevolence. Confucius factually takes it as a determinant and final measurement of music. Thus, he argues that if a man be without the virtues proper to ren, what has he to do with music? This signifies that the virtue of ren is the end whilst the use of music the means. However skilful and competent one may be in music, he is inclined to fail in the right course to be pursued if he ignores the virtues proper to ren, and eventually, his engagement with music turns out to be either meaningless or pretentious. In many cases, Confucius acts upon this principle of ren as reciprocal human-heartedness himself. He actively promotes the music of Ya and Song for the positive effects relating to the possibility of nourishing ren itself, while condemning the sound of Zheng for its negative impact on the mentality and conduct of people. According to his biographical literature, once he was besieged in the area of Kuang and surrounded by armed soldiers, Confucius stopped his student Zi Lu who was about to fight them back with weapons, and instead he resorted to music and kept them away. On another occasion, he sharply criticized his student Zi Lu for his playing the Chinese musical instrument of the se that gave off a base air of folk music in the north region with a callous sound and violent melody. [30]

Similarly claimed by Plato is the ethical function of music that is largely manifested in the “noble purpose” prescribed. As has been stated previously, this purpose is directed to the character-education of the guardians who are naturally preoccupied with the love of the soul and of the body. Music is therefore expected to “charm the souls of young men in the way of virtue” in order to nurture musical men who can recognize such positive virtues as temperance, courage, liberty, magnanimity and their negative counterparts. Molded during the process is the good soul that by its own excellence improves the body. [31] This is merely due to the psychical effect of music that reaches the inward places of the soul, the musical excellence that imitates the good, and the musical rhythms that are the expressions of a courageous and harmonious life. As a result, the guardians will develop a just taste by which they are able to distinguish between what is good and what is bad. They will love one and hate the other in accord with the law.

Nevertheless, the possibility aforesaid is supposed to be ensured by the principle of suitability. It means to compose and play what is suitable to the youth, say, suitable and proper harmony, rhythm, melody and content to be provided to train up the youth as guardians-to-be. In other words, the chants or songs are what are designed to implant harmony and good into them instead of what is made to pander to excessive pleasures or low tastes. [32] All this demands a competent as well as an experienced judge to know at least three things as follows: of what the imitation is, whether it is true, and whether it is beautiful. [33] Moreover, music in general and chants in particular must abide by the subsequent five principles: (1) words of evil omen are to be avoided in order to make the songs of good omen heard everywhere and always in the state; (2) prayers are to be offered up to the gods at sacrifices; (3) prayers are assured to ask for good instead of evil, and in this case what is composed must express the ideas of the just, the beautiful and the good which the state approves; (4) there should be suitable hymns for gods, demigods and heroes; and (5) the outstanding and good citizens are to be honored and eulogized so as to encourage the youth to learn from them. [34]

With regard to the service of the general principle of suitability, Plato specifies some other restraints and exhortations. Lamentations and strains of sorrow, for instance, are to be banished, and so are such soft and convivial harmonies or modes as the Ionian and the Lydian. For they are permeated with drunkenness, softness and indolence that are utterly unbecoming the character of the guardians. In addition, what is expressive of licentious and pleasure-seeking feelings are to be prohibited because they will corrupt the guardians as well. Then, what is recommended are the Dorian and Phrygian harmonies, and many ancient musical compositions and dances which are excellent, and from which the newly founded city may freely select what is proper and suitable. This task is of course to be handled by qualified judges of no less than fifty years of age with the assistance of some competent poets and musicians. [35]

4.  Political Expectation of Music

Considering the political or social function of music, let us quote the mini-dialogue between Confucius and his students to its full length:

Accompanied by his students, Confucius came to the city of Wucheng. Hearing there the sound of stringed instruments and singing, he smiled and said, “Why use an ox-knife to kill a fowl?” Zi You replied, “Formerly, Master, I heard you say, ‘The superior man will foster benevolence and love people when he has studied the Dao of (rites and) music, whereas the inferior man be easy to command when he has done the same. Education is useful after all’!” Confucius then said to his students present: “My students, Zi You is right. What I said just now was only a joke.” [36]

As has been detected in this quotation, the “ox-knife” implies the great power of music and “to kill a fowl” means to govern a small city like Wucheng proper. Accordingly in the context concerned, “the music” as such comes from a rehearsal of rites, “the superior man” from the ruling class, and “the inferior man” from the ruled class. He who will exercise the virtue of ren as a result of promoting rites and music is assumed to develop a government of ren (ren zheng); he who will be easily ruled as a result of doing the same is meant to keep himself in his place or contribute his bit to the social order and stability. The fact that Confucius corrects himself with the help of his student exemplifies his high awareness of music service in the political or social domain. Hence, he once divides officials into these two groups: one of those from humble families who get on with the rites and music before taking office, and the other of those from noble families who take office before getting on with the rites and music. In the case of staff selection, he proclaims that he would stand on the side of the former if he were in a position to choose between the two. [37] For he personally has more confidence in the former, and holds up to the mission as to governing a state and people by virtue of the rites and music.

In respect of the interrelationship between music and politics, it may be perceived from at least a threefold perspective. Firstly, music reflects the political climate that in turn influences music. For music is made up of all modulations of voice and sound that spring from the minds of people. As social members or political beings, people tend to be aroused to certain feelings and emotions responsive to social environment and political situation. When the feelings and emotions are moved within, they are manifested in sounds and voices; when those sounds and voices are combined so as to form compositions, there arise corresponding airs of music and song. Hence, the airs of an age of good social order indicate peace and joy, and its government is in harmony. The airs of an age of social disorder indicate complaint and anger, and its government is perversely bad. The airs of a state to ruin are expressive of sorrow and troubled thought, and its people are in straits and difficulties. There is an interaction and intercommunication between the airs of music and the character of political governing. [38] Secondly, the impact of music on politics is operated via its audiences. Treated as the regulator of true harmony, music is what human nature cannot dispense with. When listening to the music of Ya and Song on such various occasions as in ancestral temples, community gatherings and family reunions, etc, people from all walks of life would be moved and even transformed to the extent that they become inclined to enjoy and practice “mutual reverence,” “harmonious deference” and “interpersonal affection.” In this way, “fathers and sons, rulers and subjects are united in harmony, and people of the myriad states are associated in love. Such was the method of the ancient kings when they framed their music.” [39] By the same token, music and song were thus composed and employed to remold, consciously or unconsciously, the personality and mentality of the audience in general by guiding them towards the development of a good social order and constructive political atmosphere. Thirdly, the intercommunication between music and politics also relies on the genre of music and its influence on the audience. Different styles of music tend to affect the mentality and sentimentality in different ways, thus provoking vicarious reactions to their social conducts or actions. Since people are stimulated or moved by the external objects, there naturally ensues the manifestation of various feelings or faculties of mind. If the music heard features the notes and melodies that quickly die away, the audience may become sad and grievous; if the notes and melodies are varied and elegant, the audience may be satisfied and pleased; if they are vehement, full and bold throughout the piece, the audience may be resolute and daring; if they are pure, grave and expressive of sincerity, the audience may be self-controlled and respectful; if they are placid, natural and harmonious, the people may be affectionate and loving; if they are perverse, dissipated and ill-regulated, the audience may be licentious and trouble-making. Self-evidently, the audience of these kinds would accordingly form similar kinds of social environment. The positive can be well assumed to lead, for instance, to order and harmony whilst the negative to disorder and disharmony in terms of human relations.

To Plato, the moral and political services of music seem to be overlapping. Both of them are first and foremost determined by the noble purpose prescribed and directed towards the training of good guardians and then philosopher-kings for the ideal city-state or kallipolis. This is practically and ultimately intended to do good to the community and in turn benefit all the citizens involved. [40] 

Secondly, music and dance are imitative arts, of which there arise two extended categories: one is the martial music and the other the warrior dance. The former can be utilized to spur up the morale or combating spirit of the guardians either on the occasion of a routine exercise or of a real battle. Accordingly, the latter can be employed to assist the young guardians to learn the necessary skills through rehearsals or assimilations. The Pyrrhic dance, for example, imitates the postures of attack and defense illustrating brave bodies and souls, direct and muscular actions, etc. It is thus conducive to the development of a war-like character. [41]

Thirdly, as a result of adopting the Egyptian method, music and dance are to be consecrated in the honor of gods and heroes. The hymns or strains of music must be carefully chosen according to the principle of suitability or appropriateness. The consecrated models are expected to bear such tones as pious, reverent, solemn and moderate due to their positive value corresponding to the occasions. In this case, they are proper and suitable to ask gods for good omen on the one hand, and promote the heroic spirit among the participants on the other. On the contrary, any rhythms and melodies of sorrowful, blasphemous, convivial, soft and relaxed types are to be banished because of their negative influence. [42] When the proper pieces are performed at festivals, sacrifices and libations ordained, they thus form part of the sacred rites in the community. The effect is more than that in religious or ritual scope as it will come up to the creation of an atmosphere on a mass-scale. When involved in it, more people are to be, consciously and unconsciously, educated or molded in the respects of their individual character, temperament and even social conduct.

     

5. Pedagogical Worth of Music

Confucius’ promotion of music education is intended to help cultivate the inner world of people and complete the personality of a virtuous kind. All this underlines the conviction that one will be thus educated and transformed into the superior man (jun zi) with a fine personality full of reciprocal spirit. The personality as such will be able to help develop a leadership of humanity and bring order and peace to the community when taking the office. This is the way in which he establishes himself and actualizes his social commitment in favor of the multitude.

So preoccupied with the accomplishment of the ideal personality aforementioned, Confucius often proposes that this be fulfilled through a two-dimensional model of art education. The horizontal dimension of the mode is based on Confucius, exhortation that you “Stick to the Dao (Way), base yourself on the De (virtue), lean upon the Ren (reciprocal human-heartedness), and take your free recreation (as a form of play) in the Yi (i.e., the six arts, namely, rites, music, archery, charioteering, reading and writing, and arithmetic). [43] By so doing, you will be most likely to get into a more constructive situation or healthy mentality that is sustained by the Dao in an ontological sense, nourished by the De in a virtuous sense, strengthened by the Ren in a psychological sense, and sublimated by the Yi in an artistic or aesthetic sense. With respect to the vertical dimension of the mode, it lies in the conviction that “It is by shi (poetry) that the mind is inspired, by li (rites) that the character is established, and by yue (music) that the personal cultivation is completed.” [44] According to Confucius, poetry is inspiring (the will to personal cultivation), reflecting (the status quo of the human condition), communicating (feelings and ideas), and admonishing (the social ills and governmental drawbacks) through poetic expression. [45] It therefore serves as a threefold form of social, aesthetic and moral discourse, thus initiating the personal cultivation as is expected. It is on the basis of poetry that education by rites comes into efffect, involving codes of conduct, rules of rituals and established systems. These rites work to regulate human relations, discipline one’s behavior, refine one’s manners, and cultivate one’s character. Hence, it is widely agreed that man could hardly become what he is without relevant praxis of the rites required. For they are claimed to be like the candle in a dark room or like the assistant of a blind person. They are exercised to facilitate the process of socialization in general, and to motivate the necessity of moralization in particular. All this is intended to maintain order and govern people. [46] 

As for music education, it is expected to act in the interior of man, aiming to create perfect harmony between the high-ranking and the low-ranking citizens. Nevertheless, recommended as the best means of cultivating the inwardness of man, music usually creates an engaging ambiance or virtual space, in which man is apt to be emotionally affected, moved, purified and remolded without consciousness. This experience is characteristic of freedom and willingness since it provides a rather subtle edge between the emotional self and the rational self. Under such circumstances, people are liable to feel a positive pleasure and benefit from it. The superior man, for example, rejoices in attaining the Dao which he wishes to pursue, while the inferior man in attaining what he desires; and likewise, by means of music, the superior man nourishes his love of what is good and gets rid of his air of arrogance, whilst the inferior man hears the correction of his errors and meanwhile reduces his complex of inferiority. It is hence believed that music helps one make his personality complete and virtuous via its magic effect. At this stage, the personality complete and virtuous is by and large ideal, not only familiar with the truth of human nature and the change of all things, but also embracing such virtues as human-heartedness and righteousness, aside from the values of rites and music. [47] Correspondingly, the accomplished personality of this kind can be identified with the highest achievement of human fulfillment as it has fulfilled Confucius’ expectations of “the perfect man” (cheng ren) as is described in the following statement: He who is greatly wise, brave, talented, and well cultivated through rites and music can be reckoned as a perfect man. [48] In the final analysis, music is observed to play a decisive role in the becoming of the perfect man. Precisely for this reason, Confucius conceives music education as an important and indispensable procedure of human development even though he may be seen exaggerating its pedagogic worth in question.

In Plato’s dialogues, education as paideia is defined in a broad sense as “the constraining and directing of youth towards the right reason” affirmed by the law and proved by the experience of the eldest and best. Running through his proposed educational paradigm is “the noble purpose” pointed to the character training of the guardians. The whole paradigm consists of a variety of subjects on arts, sciences, social sciences and philosophical dialectics, among which music plays a primary role owing to its psychical, aesthetic, moral and political functions aforesaid. Hence, an education without musical training cannot be considered complete, and likewise a person who has not been well trained in the chorus is not entitled to be “the educated.” Furthermore, it is only by “the best educated” that “the fairest music” is appreciated and judged. The best of the guardians in the ideal city are therefore exhorted to receive musical training through lifetime by going in pursuit of the beauty of music and other arts in a way as they follow the scent like hounds. [49]

More specifically, the pedagogic significance of music is observed in more than three key areas according to Plato’s description. First of all, education as a whole commences with music because of children’s sense perceptions and musical effects. Pleasure and pain are said to be the first perceptions of children. Hence, a particular training in respect of pleasure and pain must be designed to lead them to hate what they ought to hate, and love what they ought to love from an early stage. Music, then, comes into focus for its affinity with harmony, rhythm and pleasure. That is why music education is compulsory and children are advised to spend three years learning music from the age of thirteen. This learning is not pleasure-oriented at all. It intends to upgrade pleasure to a higher kind, say, from the sensuous to the intellectual. Accordingly, the music concerned should be proper and suitable to the actualization of “the noble purpose” aforementioned. Subsequently, the imitative nature of humankind and music correspond to one another to a considerable degree. The imitation of the good soul in hymns and songs is most likely to provoke a similar kind of imitation on the part of the audience when they are under the influence of passion. In other words, music of this type will charm the souls of the young in particular and invite them to follow and attain virtue by the way of imitation. [50] For this reason, Plato advises that all the citizens in the city-state should “never cease charming themselves with the strains of which they were spoken of.” [51] The most important of all is the balanced development of character through a sound education in music and gymnastic altogether. These two genres of art appear as twins by nature. They are not exclusively designed and practiced, say, the one for the training of the soul and the other for the training of the body. Otherwise, the effect on the mind with exclusive devotion to music will produce a temper of softness and effeminacy, and such effect on the person with exclusive devotion to gymnastic will produce a temper of ferocity and hardness. The former would lead to gentleness if rightly educated, but to feebleness if too much indulged, whereas the latter would conduce to courage if rightly educated, but to brutality if too much intensified. Consequently, those who have these positive qualities will become good guardians. When they take leadership, they are well in the position to civilize and humanize the citizens in their relations to one another. Rather, those who possess those negative qualities will become feeble warriors or grow uncivilized and tasteless, just like wild beasts, all violence and fierceness. If they happen to be rulers, they are most apt to be savage tyrants instead of friends and allies, and naturally the destroyers instead of guardians of the city-state. Therefore, a sound balance ought to be retained; the teachers must mingle music and gymnastic in the fairest proportions and have in view chiefly the improvement of the soul. All this could be attained by virtue of suitable music selected in accord with the civic ethics of the kallipolis.

6.  A Comparative Remark

To sum all up, Confucius and Plato as two axial thinkers and educators have supplied us with historic considerations of and deep insights into the values of music. This is ostensibly due to the fact that both of them are music lovers and practitioners. Their classifications of music seem to be more or less similar, and feature a distinction between the music of peace and the music of war, notwithstanding that the former appears more favorable to Confucius while the latter more practical to Plato.

With regard to their respective preoccupations with music, it is mainly underlined by the five functions aforementioned. The psychical dimension is embodied in how music comes into being and how it moves its audiences, say, it springs from and then in return affects the mind of man in its particular manner. All this gives rise to the expression of one’s feelings and emotions on the one hand, and on the other, to the invisible influence on one’s inwardness or soul. The aesthetic value to Confucius bases itself on the beauty of the golden and harmonious Mean. The joy it describes ought to be moderately inviting instead of being excessive or even licentious; likewise, the sorrow it expresses ought to be properly measured without being harmfully hurtful. Hence, the music should be both perfectly beautiful in form and perfectly good in content. Alike Confucius, Plato is highly conscious of the aesthetic aspect of music. Being one of the more celebrated genres of imitative arts, it allegedly gives pleasure to the soul and delights the mood of people as a result of its beautiful harmony, rhythm, melody and many other delicate features. However, it has its own limitations to the extent that it may be wrongly used to cater to the vulgar and base desires of humankind, say, inducing the immature youth to indulge in excessive pleasure, pain or sorrow. This would then confuse and endanger the healthy character training of the guardians. Hence, the principle of moderation is exhorted to conduct a reasonable control of the emotions. The principle itself seems to share some point with the Confucian Dao of the Golden Mean in a sense. The moral function is intended to help cultivate the interior of man and ultimately exerts the nourishment of Ren or reciprocal human-heartedness as the most cardinal virtue. However, different kinds of music produce different kinds of impact on the audience. The positive as a rule leads to the positive whereas the negative to the negative. That is why Confucius makes a distinction between the commended music of Ya and Song and the condemned music of Zheng and Wei. Correspondingly, Plato sharply observes all these probabilities regarding the moral service of music. He thus proposes the modes of the Dorian and the Phrygian whereas banishing those of the Ionian and the Lydian. Furthermore, the principle of suitability is introduced for the sake of proper influence on the youth. As for the political significance of music, it is emphasized by Confucius with focus on the development of social harmony. The harmony as such is expected to actualize the harmonization of human relations, by virtue of which political order, peace and stability could be ensured and maintained within the community. Such effect is somewhat hyperbolized, which is often the case with the social role of the rites (li) in the Confucian conception of rite-music culture (liyue wenhua). As has been discerned in Plato’s consideration, the moral and political functions of music turn out to be overlapping in respect of “the noble purpose” prescribed. That is, it is designed to train up the best character of city-state guardians and philosopher-rulers, who will then contribute to the community good and humanize people in their relations to each other. Finally, the pedagogic value of music to Confucius is often found in the cultivating and becoming of the superior man (jun zi), that is accomplished through a synthetic performance of the preceding functions of music altogether. The superior man is naturally the ideal personality to Confucius himself and also the potential statesman who has the sense of mission to promote and develop the government of reciprocal human-heartedness (ren zheng). Similarly from Plato's viewpoint, the importance of music in education is stressed repeatedly. Apart from its ultimate objective identified with “the noble purpose,” a psychological investigation and pedagogic use of music is illustrated and oriented toward a balanced development of the ideal character. All this reveals a more convincing and scientific observation if compared with the overgeneralization made by Confucius. However, the role music plays in Plato’s educational system is apparently secondary in contrast to philosophy or dialectics, but it remains primary and all-important in Confucius’ educational program precisely because in the latter case music is conceived of as “an art for life’ sake.” [52] Hence, it is expected to be a natural unity of artistic beauty and moral goodness, consequently eliciting the possibility of an artistizing living style and a humanized personal character. This matter of fact is assumed to make all the difference.

Notes

[1].    Cf. Karl Jaspers, The Origin and Goal of History (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1952), p.5.

[2].    Confucius, The Analects, 7:14. Note: James Legge translates it literally into such a version: “I do not think that music could have been made so excellent as this.” A contextual scrutiny tends to prove that Confucius was talking about his experience of being that engrossed and lost in the fascinating music heard.

[3].    Xunzi, “Yue lun” 乐论 (Discourse on Music), in Xunzi 荀子 （The Book of Xunzi）. The translation is rendered by the author of the paper.

[4].    Cf. Yue ji 乐记 (Record of Music, trans. James Legge), 3:29. In The Sacred Books of China (The Li Ki, Book XVII., Yo Ki, Delhi et al: Motilal Banarsidass, rep. 1976).

[5].    Sun Xingyan (ed.), “Liuyi xia” 六艺下(The Six Arts II), in Kongzi jiyü 孔子集语 (The Quotations of Confucius, Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, 1993).

[6].    Cf. Yue ji 乐记 (Record of Music, trans. James Legge), 3:29.

[7].    Ibid., 1:2.

[8].    Sun Xingyan (ed.), “Liuyi xia” 六艺下 (The Six Arts II), in Kongzi jiyü 孔子集语 (The Quotations of Confucius).

[9].    Ibid.

[10].  Plato, Supra, 653d-e; Laws, Book II, 672-673.

[11].  Plato, Republic, 401d f.; Laws, 673.

[12].  Confucius, The Analects, 8:15.

[13].  Ibid., 3:25.

[14].  Ibid., 11:26.

[15].  Xunzi, “Yue lun” 乐论 (Discourse on Music), in Xunzi 荀子(The Book of Xunzi).

[16].  Yue ji 乐记 (Record of Music, Trans. James Legge), 1:24, 2:19.

[17].  Ibid., 2:23.

[18].  Plato, Republic, 584; Laws, 667.

[19].  Plato, Republic, 402e, 603e-604e; Laws, 792-793, 818.

[20].  Plato, Republic, 558-559.

[21].  Ibid., 535 f.

[22].  Ibid., 581 f.

[23].  Plato, Laws, 668-669; Rep., 403c.

[24].  Plato, Republic, 400e.

[25].  Ibid., 404e.

[26].  Sun Xingyan (ed.), “Liuyi xia” 六艺下 (The Six Arts II), in Kongzi jiyü 孔子集语 (The Quotations of Confucius).

[27].  Confucius, The Analects, 4:15.

[28].  Ibid., 12:2; 15:24.

[29].  Ibid., 6:30.

[30].  Ibid., 11:15; also see Confucius, Kongzi jiayü 孔子家语 (The Confucian Sayings, Ch.35); Sun Xingyan (ed.), “Liuyi xia” 六艺下(The Six Arts II), in Kongzi jiyü 孔子集语 (The Quotations of Confucius).

[31].  Plato, Laws, 671; Repblic. 402c-e, 403d.

[32].  Plato, Laws, 802.

[33].  Ibid., 661, 669-70.

[34].  Ibid., 801.

[35].  Plato, Republic, 398, 399; Laws, 800, 802, 815-816.

[36].  Confucius, The Analects, 17:4.

[37].  Ibid., 11:1.

[38].  Yue ji 乐记 (Record of Music), 1:4.

[39].  Ibid., 3:28.

[40].  Plato, Republic, 398 f, 402, 413-414, 415-417; Laws, 790-791.

[41].  Plato, Laws, 804-805, 813-815.

[42].  Ibid., 799-800.

[43].  Confucius, The Analects, 7:6.

[44].  Ibid., 8:8.

[45].  Ibid., 17:9.

[46].  Cf. Confucius, Kongzi jiayü 孔子家语 (The Confucian Sayings, Ch. 27); Sun Xingyan (ed.), “Liuyi xia” 六艺下(The Six Arts II), in Kongzi jiyü 孔子集语 (The Quotations of Confucius).

[47].  Cf. Confucius, Kongzi jiayü 孔子家语 (The Confucian Sayings, Ch. 22, Ch.18); Sun Xingyan (ed.), “Liuyi xia” 六艺下(The Six Arts II), in Kongzi jiyü 孔子集语 (The Quotations of Confucius).

[48].  Confucius, The Analects, 14:12.

[49].  Plato, Laws, 652-665; Republic, 403 ff.

[50].  Plato, Laws, 812.

[51].  Ibid., 665.

[52].  Cf. Xu Fuguan, Zhongguo yishu jingshen 中国艺术精神 (The Spirit of Chinese Art, Shenyang: Chunfeng Wenyi Press, 1987), pp.21-31.

（This paper was first delivered at the Trier Symposium in 1997. Then it is revised and included in Robert Wilkinson (ed.), New Essays in Comparative Aesthetics, Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007.）

（作者惠寄。录入编辑：乾乾）